The definition of public relations frequently depends upon who is using the term. For agencies and practitioners, it is a respected profession and management function. For its detractors, PR is a means for applying a gloss or otherwise polishing something that is otherwise objectionable.
PR is frequently interchanged incorrectly with terms such as "spin" and "publicity." And the recently popular term "marketing public relations" adds to the confusion.
Here are three widely accepted definitions
o From the textbook Effective Public Relations authored by Scott Cutlip, Allen Center and Glen Broom: Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends.
o From PR News: Public relations is the management function which evaluates public attitudes, identifies the policies and procedures of an individual or an organization with the public interest, and then plans and executes a program of action to earn public understanding and acceptance.
o From the PR Society of America (PRSA): PR helps an organization and its publics to adapt mutually to each other. The term "publics" recognizes the need to understand the attitudes and values of and to develop effective relationships with many different stakeholders such as employees, members, customers, local communities, shareholders other institutions and society at large
The common factor in these definitions is the two-way nature of the relationship. PR calls for equal amounts of listening as well as talking.
Furthermore, as a management function it includes:
o Anticipating, analyzing and interpreting public opinion, attitudes and issues that might impact an organization's operations and plans positively or negatively.
o Counseling management regarding policy decisions, courses of action and communications with an eye toward public ramifications and the organization's social or citizenship responsibilities.
o Continually researching, conducting and evaluating programs designed to achieve the public's informed understanding of an organization's aims.
o Planning and implementing an organization's efforts to influence public policy. Specifically: establishing objectives, budgeting, recruiting and training staff and developing facilities -- essentially the management of all resources necessary to achieve an organizations PR objectives.
The primary quality of PR is that it is based on a reciprocal relationship -- a two-way street -- between an organization and its many publics.
If you are not talking and listening to your publics and responding accordingly to the benefit of both, you are not practicing public relations.
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Brian_R._Salisbury
Kamis, 25 Agustus 2011
Public Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction
By Nicholas Stern. This article analyzes the conditions that brought political power positions in business by developing a model of corporate lobbying signal in a democratic capitalist society. Setting aside the traditional dichotomy of structural economic determinants of political action against the 'business', our model predicts the conditions under which political decision makers in choosing to modify their policy promises to accommodate the business of political choice. Our results indicate that the structural strength of business outside of public policy turns out depends on two variables: the size limitation of business reputation in relation to the cost of lobbying materials, and the ratio of policy-making reputation restriction on policy commitments and promises a campaign for election costs from adverse economic effects. The model is evaluated in the context of qualitative data from case studies of business lobbying for tax reform and regulation of financial services and the environment in England and Germany.
If politics is a matter of who gets what, when and where, then today there is little doubt that business interests may succeed in securing benefits from the government. In addition, holders of business is not sufficiently balanced in influencing public policy, increasing global integration of factor and goods markets may further advance the political power of business (Cerny, 1999). Enormous normative implications: if the public policy bias systematically with business interests, then political equality, democratic accountability and legitimacy of the political outcome will collapse (Dahl, 1989, hal.324-28; Green, 1985). However, there is little consensus in the literature about what is the source of political power of business.
On the Poverty Impact of Public Policy in Arab States
Poverty impact of public policies with public policies designed to reduce poverty in developing countries and to dramatically illustrate the domestic and international attention. This article provides an overview of some contemporary development in CGE literature related to poverty. Specific focus in this article are also to give attention to the status of work related to poverty in CGE Arab countries. In describing the literature and the specific situation in Arab countries, the article also provides a general framework to guide the country studies that aim menyekapati impact of public policy on poverty in the Arab region. Some applications are a good example in developing countries is Adelman and Robinson (1979) for Korea, Dervis, de Melo and Robinson (1982) for Kenya, Thorbecke (1991) for Indonesia, de Janvry, Sadoulet and Fargeix (1991) for Ecuador, Morrisson (1991) for Morocco, Chia, Wahba and Whelley (1994) for Côte d'Ivoire, Lofgren et al. (1999) for Morocco, and Cogneau and Robilliard (2000) for Madagascar.
From various sources
If politics is a matter of who gets what, when and where, then today there is little doubt that business interests may succeed in securing benefits from the government. In addition, holders of business is not sufficiently balanced in influencing public policy, increasing global integration of factor and goods markets may further advance the political power of business (Cerny, 1999). Enormous normative implications: if the public policy bias systematically with business interests, then political equality, democratic accountability and legitimacy of the political outcome will collapse (Dahl, 1989, hal.324-28; Green, 1985). However, there is little consensus in the literature about what is the source of political power of business.
On the Poverty Impact of Public Policy in Arab States
Poverty impact of public policies with public policies designed to reduce poverty in developing countries and to dramatically illustrate the domestic and international attention. This article provides an overview of some contemporary development in CGE literature related to poverty. Specific focus in this article are also to give attention to the status of work related to poverty in CGE Arab countries. In describing the literature and the specific situation in Arab countries, the article also provides a general framework to guide the country studies that aim menyekapati impact of public policy on poverty in the Arab region. Some applications are a good example in developing countries is Adelman and Robinson (1979) for Korea, Dervis, de Melo and Robinson (1982) for Kenya, Thorbecke (1991) for Indonesia, de Janvry, Sadoulet and Fargeix (1991) for Ecuador, Morrisson (1991) for Morocco, Chia, Wahba and Whelley (1994) for Côte d'Ivoire, Lofgren et al. (1999) for Morocco, and Cogneau and Robilliard (2000) for Madagascar.
From various sources
Understanding and Development Policy Analysis
Policy analysis can be understood as a process that produces knowledge of and in the policy process. Knowledge of the policy process refers to "systematic and empirical studies about how policy is made and give effect", while knowledge in the policy process refers to the understanding that "realism decision to partially depend on access to the stock of existing knowledge". In this wide definition, policy analysis covers various forms of assessment, from the use of mystical or supernatural power to the modern sciences.
Historically, the purpose of policy analysis is to provide information for policy makers to be considered a reason to find the problem-solving policies. Thus, the basic orientation of policy analysis has practical in many ways making it equal to the applied social sciences.
Methodology, methods and techniques of policy analysis has changed markedly throughout history. But policy analysis explicitly only be empirical and quantitative in the period after the Industrial Revolution. When the analysis of twentieth-century policy of following the tradition established in the previous century, fifty years ago has seen an increase in professionalism and the institutionalization of policy analysis in government. In the period after World War II, began to dominate analysentrik approach to policy analysis.
The evolution of policy analysis has generally followed the changes in society. One of the major changes in society is the growth of urban areas in Mesopotamia and then in India, China and Greece. In the medieval period, urban civilization becomes more complex with the differentiation and specialization of the role of policy analysis, especially financial, and legal war.
Major transformation in the production of knowledge occurs as a result of policies of the Industrial Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, both followed the growth of political stability among social chaos. In the twentieth century, developing policy analysis. First to respond to the economic downturn and war, and later as a reaction against the government grew dramatically. After World War II, was born of post-industrial society which has a technical-professional class of educated and has reached a prominent position that is not unexpected as the previous period.
There are at least two main ways to explain the evolutionary history of policy analysis from the past until today. According to one approach (guidance technocratic), knowledge of policy is a scarce resource whose ownership can increase the strength and influence of professional policy analysis. Other approaches (counseling technocratic) conversely states that the primary role of policy analysts is to legitimize the policy decisions made by power holders.
Each approach helps in some ways to explain the change history, but both tend to exaggerate the power and influence of policy analysis for different reasons. Guidance technocratic approach to assess the influence of too much analysis in the form of important policy choices, rather technocratic one counseling approach in assessing the importance of symbolic analysis in the ratified decisions made on the basics of politics.
Whatever the final decision of the controversy, it is clear that the environmental community at this time and the problem has changed dramatically. Efforts to develop new procedures and better to produce information that will contribute to the resolution of public issues is not solely an intellectual task or scientific tasks, but basically political in nature. Policy analysis inherent in the political process that reflects the conflict of values from several community groups that fight for their own vision of social development.
Sources: William N. Dunn, Introduction to Public Policy Analysis
Historically, the purpose of policy analysis is to provide information for policy makers to be considered a reason to find the problem-solving policies. Thus, the basic orientation of policy analysis has practical in many ways making it equal to the applied social sciences.
Methodology, methods and techniques of policy analysis has changed markedly throughout history. But policy analysis explicitly only be empirical and quantitative in the period after the Industrial Revolution. When the analysis of twentieth-century policy of following the tradition established in the previous century, fifty years ago has seen an increase in professionalism and the institutionalization of policy analysis in government. In the period after World War II, began to dominate analysentrik approach to policy analysis.
The evolution of policy analysis has generally followed the changes in society. One of the major changes in society is the growth of urban areas in Mesopotamia and then in India, China and Greece. In the medieval period, urban civilization becomes more complex with the differentiation and specialization of the role of policy analysis, especially financial, and legal war.
Major transformation in the production of knowledge occurs as a result of policies of the Industrial Revolution and the Age of Enlightenment, both followed the growth of political stability among social chaos. In the twentieth century, developing policy analysis. First to respond to the economic downturn and war, and later as a reaction against the government grew dramatically. After World War II, was born of post-industrial society which has a technical-professional class of educated and has reached a prominent position that is not unexpected as the previous period.
There are at least two main ways to explain the evolutionary history of policy analysis from the past until today. According to one approach (guidance technocratic), knowledge of policy is a scarce resource whose ownership can increase the strength and influence of professional policy analysis. Other approaches (counseling technocratic) conversely states that the primary role of policy analysts is to legitimize the policy decisions made by power holders.
Each approach helps in some ways to explain the change history, but both tend to exaggerate the power and influence of policy analysis for different reasons. Guidance technocratic approach to assess the influence of too much analysis in the form of important policy choices, rather technocratic one counseling approach in assessing the importance of symbolic analysis in the ratified decisions made on the basics of politics.
Whatever the final decision of the controversy, it is clear that the environmental community at this time and the problem has changed dramatically. Efforts to develop new procedures and better to produce information that will contribute to the resolution of public issues is not solely an intellectual task or scientific tasks, but basically political in nature. Policy analysis inherent in the political process that reflects the conflict of values from several community groups that fight for their own vision of social development.
Sources: William N. Dunn, Introduction to Public Policy Analysis
PROCESS ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC POLICY
The new policy process begins when the actors begin to realize that the policy of state of the problem, namely the perceived situation of adversity or disappointment in the formulation of needs, values and opportunities (Ackoff in Dunn, 2000:121). Dunn (2000-21) argues that policy analysis methodology incorporates five general procedure commonly used in solving human problems: definition, prediction, prescription, description, and evaluation. In the analysis of policies such procedures to obtain specific names, namely:
1. Problem Formulation
Formulation of the problem (definition) yield information on the conditions that give rise to policy issues
2. Forecasting
Forecasting (prediction) provides information about the future consequences of alternative implementation of the policy.
3. Recommendation
Recommendation (prescription) to provide information about the relative value or usefulness of future consequences of a problem-solving.
4. Monitoring
Monitoring (description), yielding information about current and past consequences of the implementation of policy alternatives.
5. Evaluation
Evaluation, which has the same name as that used in everyday language, provides information about the value or usefulness of the consequences of solving or coping.
In the analysis of public policy at least cover the seven basic steps. Into seven steps are:
1. Policy Formulation Problems
To be able to study something of public issues is necessary theory, information and methodologies relevant to the problems faced. So that the identification problem will be precise and accurate, then developed into a policy question raised certain issues of policy.
Theory and methods required in this stage is that the research methods, including evaluation research, quantitative methods, and theories relevant to the substance of the issues faced, as well as information about issues that are being carried out the study.
2. Formulation of Objectives
A policy always has the objective to solve public problems. Policy analysts should be able to formulate these goals are clear, realistic and measurable. Obviously, that is understandable, realistic means in accordance with the values of philosophy and scalable means as far as possible be taken into account for real, or can be broken down by size or specific units.
3. Determination Criteria
The analysis requires a clear and consistent criteria for assessing alternatives. The things that are pragmatically necessary as economic (efficiency, etc.) politics (consensus among stakeholders, etc.), administrative (likely effectiveness, etc.) but no less important matters relating to the abstract values such as ethics and the fundamental philosophy (equity, equality, etc.)
4. Model Formulation
The model is an abstraction of the real world, can also be defined as a simple overview of the complex nature of reality problems. Models can be poured in forms that can be classified as follows: Schematic of the model (eg flow charts), physical models (eg, miniature), the game model (eg, fire extinguisher training), symbolic model (eg, mathematical formulas). Benefits of the model in the analysis of public policy is to facilitate a structural description of the problem, assist in making predictions of the consequences arising from the presence or absence of changes in factor.
5. Alternative Development
Alternatives are a number of tools or methods that can be used to reach, directly or indirectly a number of objectives that have been determined.
Policy alternatives can arise in one's mind for several reasons: (1) Based on observations of existing policies. (2) By doing some sort of analogy of a policy in a certain field and tried to apply them in the field being studied, (3) is the result of the assessment of certain issues.
6. Alternative Assessment
Alternatives that exist need to be assessed based on criteria as defined in step three. The goal is to get an assessment more about the effectiveness and feasibility of each alternative in achieving the goals, in order to obtain conclusions about which alternative is most feasible, effective and efficient. There should also be concern that, perhaps an alternative is economically advantageous, the administration can be accomplished, but contrary to the social values or even have a negative impact on the environment. So for this needs assessment of symptoms such as ethics and philosophy or other considerations that may be needed to assess more objectively.
7. Policy recommendations
Assessment of the alternatives will provide a snapshot of an appropriate alternative options for achieving public policy. The task of public policy analyst at the last step is to formulate recommendations on alternatives that can be taken into account to achieve its optimum goals. Recommendations can be one or several alternatives, arguing that a full assessment of various factors. In this recommendation should be presented implementation strategies of policy alternatives that are presented to public policy makers.
Source book for Public Policy Analysis Work Liestyodono
1. Problem Formulation
Formulation of the problem (definition) yield information on the conditions that give rise to policy issues
2. Forecasting
Forecasting (prediction) provides information about the future consequences of alternative implementation of the policy.
3. Recommendation
Recommendation (prescription) to provide information about the relative value or usefulness of future consequences of a problem-solving.
4. Monitoring
Monitoring (description), yielding information about current and past consequences of the implementation of policy alternatives.
5. Evaluation
Evaluation, which has the same name as that used in everyday language, provides information about the value or usefulness of the consequences of solving or coping.
In the analysis of public policy at least cover the seven basic steps. Into seven steps are:
1. Policy Formulation Problems
To be able to study something of public issues is necessary theory, information and methodologies relevant to the problems faced. So that the identification problem will be precise and accurate, then developed into a policy question raised certain issues of policy.
Theory and methods required in this stage is that the research methods, including evaluation research, quantitative methods, and theories relevant to the substance of the issues faced, as well as information about issues that are being carried out the study.
2. Formulation of Objectives
A policy always has the objective to solve public problems. Policy analysts should be able to formulate these goals are clear, realistic and measurable. Obviously, that is understandable, realistic means in accordance with the values of philosophy and scalable means as far as possible be taken into account for real, or can be broken down by size or specific units.
3. Determination Criteria
The analysis requires a clear and consistent criteria for assessing alternatives. The things that are pragmatically necessary as economic (efficiency, etc.) politics (consensus among stakeholders, etc.), administrative (likely effectiveness, etc.) but no less important matters relating to the abstract values such as ethics and the fundamental philosophy (equity, equality, etc.)
4. Model Formulation
The model is an abstraction of the real world, can also be defined as a simple overview of the complex nature of reality problems. Models can be poured in forms that can be classified as follows: Schematic of the model (eg flow charts), physical models (eg, miniature), the game model (eg, fire extinguisher training), symbolic model (eg, mathematical formulas). Benefits of the model in the analysis of public policy is to facilitate a structural description of the problem, assist in making predictions of the consequences arising from the presence or absence of changes in factor.
5. Alternative Development
Alternatives are a number of tools or methods that can be used to reach, directly or indirectly a number of objectives that have been determined.
Policy alternatives can arise in one's mind for several reasons: (1) Based on observations of existing policies. (2) By doing some sort of analogy of a policy in a certain field and tried to apply them in the field being studied, (3) is the result of the assessment of certain issues.
6. Alternative Assessment
Alternatives that exist need to be assessed based on criteria as defined in step three. The goal is to get an assessment more about the effectiveness and feasibility of each alternative in achieving the goals, in order to obtain conclusions about which alternative is most feasible, effective and efficient. There should also be concern that, perhaps an alternative is economically advantageous, the administration can be accomplished, but contrary to the social values or even have a negative impact on the environment. So for this needs assessment of symptoms such as ethics and philosophy or other considerations that may be needed to assess more objectively.
7. Policy recommendations
Assessment of the alternatives will provide a snapshot of an appropriate alternative options for achieving public policy. The task of public policy analyst at the last step is to formulate recommendations on alternatives that can be taken into account to achieve its optimum goals. Recommendations can be one or several alternatives, arguing that a full assessment of various factors. In this recommendation should be presented implementation strategies of policy alternatives that are presented to public policy makers.
Source book for Public Policy Analysis Work Liestyodono
UNDERSTANDING AND ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC POLICY
William N. Dunn (2000) suggests that policy analysis is an applied social science discipline which uses a variety of research methods and arguments to generate and transfer relevant information to the policy, so it can be used at political level in order to solve policy problems. Weimer and Vining, (1998:1): The product of policy analysis is advice. Specifically, it is some advice That inform public policy decision. So public policy analysis is more of a consideration of the advice or material that contains a public policy makers about the problems faced, a task that must be performed by public organizations related to the problem, and also the various policy alternatives that may be taken with a variety of assessment based on policy goals.
Analysis of public policies aimed at providing recommendations to help policy makers in efforts to solve public problems. In the analysis of public policy contained information relating to public issues and arguments about the various policy alternatives, for consideration or input to the policy makers.
Analysis of public policies based on the study of discretion can be distinguished between policy analysis prior to any specific public policy and after a specific public policy. Analysis of the policy prior to any public policy based solely on public issues so that the results are really a new public policy recommendations. Both are good policy analysis before and after the policy has the same goal of providing policy recommendations to policymakers in order to obtain a higher quality policy. Dunn (2000: 117) distinguishes three main forms of public policy analysis, namely:
1.Analysis prospective policy
Prospective Policy Analysis in the form of production and transformation of information before the action started and implemented policies. Policy analysis here is a tool for synthesizing information for use in formulating policy alternatives and preferences are expressed comparatively, predicted in a quantitative and qualitative language as a foundation or a guide in making policy decisions.
2.Analysis retrospective policy
Retrospective Policy Analysis is a creation and transformation of information after the policy actions performed. There are three types of analysts based on the activities developed by a group of analysts is the analyst-oriented discipline, problem-oriented analysts and analyst-oriented applications. Of course, this retrospective analysis of these three types there are advantages and disadvantages.
3.Analysis integrated policy
Integrated Policy Analysis is a form of analysis that combines the operating style of the practitioners are concerned with the creation and transformation of information before and after the policy action taken. Integrated policy analysis not only requires the analyst to relate the investigation stage retrospective and perspective, but also requires the analyst to continually produce and transform information at any time.
Source book for Public Policy Analysis Liestyodono work
Analysis of public policies aimed at providing recommendations to help policy makers in efforts to solve public problems. In the analysis of public policy contained information relating to public issues and arguments about the various policy alternatives, for consideration or input to the policy makers.
Analysis of public policies based on the study of discretion can be distinguished between policy analysis prior to any specific public policy and after a specific public policy. Analysis of the policy prior to any public policy based solely on public issues so that the results are really a new public policy recommendations. Both are good policy analysis before and after the policy has the same goal of providing policy recommendations to policymakers in order to obtain a higher quality policy. Dunn (2000: 117) distinguishes three main forms of public policy analysis, namely:
1.Analysis prospective policy
Prospective Policy Analysis in the form of production and transformation of information before the action started and implemented policies. Policy analysis here is a tool for synthesizing information for use in formulating policy alternatives and preferences are expressed comparatively, predicted in a quantitative and qualitative language as a foundation or a guide in making policy decisions.
2.Analysis retrospective policy
Retrospective Policy Analysis is a creation and transformation of information after the policy actions performed. There are three types of analysts based on the activities developed by a group of analysts is the analyst-oriented discipline, problem-oriented analysts and analyst-oriented applications. Of course, this retrospective analysis of these three types there are advantages and disadvantages.
3.Analysis integrated policy
Integrated Policy Analysis is a form of analysis that combines the operating style of the practitioners are concerned with the creation and transformation of information before and after the policy action taken. Integrated policy analysis not only requires the analyst to relate the investigation stage retrospective and perspective, but also requires the analyst to continually produce and transform information at any time.
Source book for Public Policy Analysis Liestyodono work
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